Adrenaline/Epinephrine: This hormone activates both alpha- and beta-adrenergic systems, leading to vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure. It stimulates the heart, elevating heart rate and contractile force. Additionally, it induces bronchodilation, facilitating respiration, and promotes cerebral vasodilation, thereby enhancing cerebral blood flow.
Albumin: Water-soluble proteins found in egg whites, blood, lymph, and other tissues and fluids. They coagulate upon heating.
Aldosterone: A hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex that regulates electrolyte and water balance by increasing the renal retention of sodium and the excretion of potassium.
Allopatry: Allopatry refers to the condition in which populations or species are geographically separated from one another. This separation is often due to physical barriers such as mountains, rivers, or distance, preventing interbreeding between the groups.
Angiotensin I: A decapeptide that is cleaved from precursor angiotensinogen by renin. Angiotensin I has limited biological activity. It is converted to angiotensin II, a potent vasoconstrictor, after the removal of two amino acids at the C-terminal by angiotensin converting enzyme.
Anticoagulant: Certain toxins present in snake venoms (e.g., genus Bothrops) act as anticoagulants by inhibiting coagulation, destroying platelets, or activating fibrinolysis. These effects can lead to hemorrhage and impair clot formation. However, some toxins from these venoms show potential for development as anticoagulant drugs for medical therapies.
Antidiuretic hormone/ Vasopressins: Antidiuretic hormones released by the neurohypophysis of all vertebrates (structure varies with species) to regulate water balance and osmolarity. In general, vasopressin is a nonapeptide consisting of a six-amino-acid ring with a cysteine 1 to cysteine 6 disulfide bridge or an octapeptide containing a cystine. All mammals have arginine vasopressin except the pig with a lysine at position 8. Vasopressin, a vasoconstrictor, acts on the kidney collecting ducts to increase water reabsorption, increase blood volume and blood pressure.
Aposematism: Aposematism is a biological phenomenon in which an organism possesses bright and conspicuous coloration or other warning signals to indicate that it is toxic, unpalatable, or otherwise harmful to potential predators. The concept is derived from the Greek words "apo," meaning "away," and "sema," meaning "sign," essentially translating to a warning signal.
Atherosclerosis: A thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of arteries that occurs with formation of atherosclerotic plaques within the arterial intima.
Biodiversity (biological diversity): Refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth, encompassing all levels of its organization, from the genes of individuals that make up a local population or species, to the species that constitute all or part of a local community, which forms the living component of the many ecosystems and landscapes of the world.
Bloodstream/ Blood Circulation: The movement of the blood as it is pumped through the cardiovascular system.
Bootstrap support (BS): The bootstrap method is a statistical technique used to estimate the distribution of a statistic (such as a mean, variance, or regression coefficient) by resampling with replacement from the original data. In phylogenetics, the bootstrap method is used to assess the reliability and robustness of phylogenetic trees. These trees represent the evolutionary relationships among a set of species or genes. Bootstrapping provides a way to quantify the confidence in each branch (or clade) of the tree. Thus, the bootstrap support value represents the frequency with which a particular branch or clade appears in these trees, indicating the level of confidence in the inferred relationship. Bootstrap values can be interpreted as follows.
Excellent bootstrap values (≥ 90%): Indicate strong support for the clade and suggest that it is likely to be a true feature of the underlying phylogeny.
High bootstrap values (≥ 80-90%): Indicate moderate support for the clade and suggest that it is possible to be a true feature of the underlying phylogeny.
Moderate bootstrap values (≥60-80%): Indicate week support and suggest that the clade is somewhat reliable but should be interpreted with caution.
Low bootstrap values (< 60%): Indicate poor support and suggest that the clade may not be a reliable feature of the phylogeny.
Bradykinin: A nonapeptide messenger that is enzymatically produced from kallidin in the blood where it is a potent but short-lived agent of arteriolar dilation and increased capillary permeability. Bradykinin is also released from mast cells during asthma attacks, from gut walls as a gastrointestinal vasodilator, from damaged tissues as a pain signal, and may be a neurotransmitter.
Carcinogenesis: The origin, production or development of cancer through genotypic and phenotypic changes which upset the normal balance between cell proliferation and cell death. Carcinogenesis generally requires a constellation of steps, which may occur quickly or over a period of many years.
Cis-Andean region: Refers to the tropical region of South America located east of the Andes and below 1,000 meters in elevation. In Colombia includes the Orinoquia and Amazon regions.
Clade: A clade is a piece of a phylogeny (a branch of evolutionary tree) that includes an ancestral lineage and all the descendants of that ancestor.
Convergent selection: Convergent selection, commonly referred to as convergent evolution, is the process where different species independently evolve similar traits. This phenomenon occurs when species that do not share a recent common ancestor face similar environmental pressures and natural selection, leading to the development of analogous structures or functions. These traits are similar in form or function but evolved independently in different species.
Co-optation: It is a process that occurs when natural selection finds new uses for existing traits, including genes, organs, and other body structures.
Cryptic diversity: Refers to the presence of multiple distinct species or lineages that are morphologically, indistinguishable or very similar. Despite their similar appearance, these species exhibit genetic, ecological, or behavioral differences that are not apparent through traditional morphological characterization alone.
Coagulant: Agents that cause clotting.
Digestive enzymes: The main digestive enzymes made in the pancreas include Amylase (made in the mouth and pancreas; breaks down complex carbohydrates), Lipase (made in the pancreas; breaks down fats), and Protease (made in the pancreas; breaks down proteins)
Diuresis:A fundamental physiological mechanism in which the kidneys perform filtration and excretion of surplus water, electrolytes, and metabolic waste products via urine formation.
Dysecdysis:Abnormal or incomplete shedding of the outer skin (epidermis) in reptiles.
Dyslipidemias: Abnormalities in the serum levels of lipids, including overproduction or deficiency. Abnormal serum lipid profiles may include high total cholesterol, high triglycerides, low high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and elevated low density lipoprotein cholesterol.
Ecdysis: Refer to the periodic process of shedding or molting the outer layer of skin, exoskeleton, or cuticle in animals. This process is most commonly observed in reptiles, such as snakes and lizards.
Ecosystem: A cluster of communities of organisms together with their physical environment, viewed as a system of interacting and interdependent relationships and including such processes as the flow of energy through trophic levels and the cycling of chemical elements and compounds through living and non-living components of the system.
Edema (swelling): This inflammatory swelling results from venom-induced endothelial damage and increased capillary permeability, mediated by metalloproteinases and other toxins in Bothrops venoms. The subsequent plasma extravasation leads to characteristic local manifestations including pronounced edema, pain, and erythema at the envenomation site.
Evolution: Refers to the changes in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations as an ongoing process of descent with modification. This process considers mechanisms of genetic inheritance and the role of natural selection and other evolutionary forces such as reproductive isolation and genetic divergence, etc.
GABA/gamma-Aminobutyric Acid: The most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
Glutamate/Glutamic Acid: A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
Haplotype: A haplotype is a physical grouping of genomic variants (or polymorphisms) that tend to be inherited together.
Histamine:Histamine is an amine derived from the enzymatic decarboxylation of histidine, which may be present in certain snake venoms. This biogenic amine acts as: (1) a potent bronchial smooth muscle constrictor, (2) a vasodilator, and (3) a central neurotransmitter. In cases of snakebite envenomation, excessive histamine release may contribute to toxic effects including bronchospasm, hypotension, and severe allergic reactions, thereby complicating the clinical presentation and exacerbating systemic toxicity.
Human footprint: The human footprint measures energy quantities, resources, and products consumed by a human during his/her lifetime. Thus, Human Footprint Index expresses as a percentage the relative human Influence in every biome on the land’s surface.
Hyperhumid forest: It is a type of forest ecosystem characterized by extremely high levels of humidity and precipitation, typically exceeding 4,000 mm (157 inches) of rainfall annually. These conditions create a consistently moist environment throughout the year, with minimal seasonal variation in rainfall.
Immune system: The body's defense mechanism against foreign organisms or substances and deviant native cells. It includes the humoral immune response and the cell-mediated response and consists of a complex of interrelated cellular, molecular, and genetic components.
Immunodepleted: Refers to cells, molecules, or components of the immune system that can be selectively depleted or removed, typically through specific interventions. This process is often used in research or clinical settings to study the function of particular immune cells or to modulate the immune response for therapeutic purposes.
Immunogen: Immunogens represent a class of substances capable of inducing adaptive immune responses upon systemic exposure. When present in snake venoms, these molecules (typically proteins) stimulate B-cell activation and subsequent IgG production. The generated immunoglobulins exhibit high-affinity binding to cognate venom antigens, mediating toxin neutralization through epitope masking and Fc-dependent clearance mechanisms.
Lifespan: Refers to the total duration of time an organism is expected to live, from birth to death, under natural or typical circumstances. It can apply to individuals, species, or even biological components like cells.
Lowland tropical forest: Refers to those forested environments from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation.
Metastasis/Neoplasm Metastasis: The transfer of a neoplasm from one organ or part of the body to another remote from the primary site.
Mimicry: Mimicry is a biological phenomenon where one organism, the mimic, evolves to resemble another organism, the model, to gain an advantage, usually related to survival or reproduction. Mimicry often involves aspects such as appearance, behavior, sound, scent, or even location, and it serves various functions, primarily in predator-prey interactions or reproductive strategies.
Molecular marker: A molecular marker is a molecule, typically a DNA/RNA sequence, that can be identified and is heritable. These markers are found at specific locations within the genome and can be used to detect DNA polymorphisms, which are variations in the DNA sequence among individuals.
Monophyletic group: A monophyletic group is a set of organisms that includes a common ancestor and all its descendants.
Natriuretic/ Natriuretic Peptides: Peptides that regulate the water-electrolyte balance in the body, also known as natriuretic peptide hormones. Several have been sequenced (atrial natriuretic factor; brain natriuretic peptide; c-type natriuretic peptide).
Necrosis: Necrosis is the premature death of cells and tissues in the body, which occurs due to factors such as infection, toxins, trauma, or ischemia (lack of blood supply). Necrosis is an uncontrolled cell death process that often results in inflammation and damage to the surrounding tissues.
Neuromuscular blockade: Refers to the action of molecules (= medical drugs, or toxins) that block the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles (see synapse). This results in muscle relaxation and paralysis.
Nitric oxide: A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells, synthesized from arginine by nitric oxide synthase. Nitric oxide is one of the endothelium-dependent relaxing factors released by the vascular endothelium and mediates vasodilation. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic guanylate cyclase and thus elevates intracellular levels of cyclic GMP.
Noradrenaline: Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers, and of the diffuse projection system in the brain that arises from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic.
Ontogeny, also known as ontogenesis, refers to the development or course of development of an individual organism from the earliest stage to maturity. This process encompasses all the changes an organism undergoes from a single cell (zygote) through its entire lifespan until death. Ontogeny includes various stages such as embryonic development, growth, and aging, representing the biological unfolding of an organism's life cycle.
Orogeny: Orogeny refers to the geological process of mountain formation, typically resulting from the compression and folding of the Earth's crust. This process often occurs at convergent plate boundaries, where the collision and interaction of tectonic plates lead to the uplift and deformation of the crust, creating mountain ranges.
Paralysis: A general term most often used to describe severe or complete loss of muscle strength due to motor system disease from the level of the cerebral cortex to the muscle fiber. This term may also occasionally refer to a loss of sensory function.
Parapatric speciation: Type of species diversification involving contiguous populations occupying different habitats within a continuous geographic range without any particular extrinsic barrier to gene flow.
Paraphyletic group: A paraphyletic group is a taxonomic grouping that includes an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendants.
Parsimonious: Refers to a principle or approach that favors the simplest explanation or hypothesis that fits the available evidence. This principle is known as Occam's razor, which suggests that among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected.
Pathologies: Refer to the scientific study of diseases, including their causes (etiology), development (pathogenesis), effects on the body, and clinical manifestations. The term can also describe the specific abnormalities, conditions, or diseases present in an organism, tissue, or organ.
Phylogeny: Phylogeny refers to the evolutionary history and relationships among a species or group of organisms. It describes the lineage and connections between different organisms based on their common ancestry and evolutionary development.
Phylogeography:Phylogeography is the study of the historical processes that may be responsible for the geographic distribution of genealogical lineages, particularly within and among closely related species.
Polytomy: A polytomy in a phylogenetic tree refers to an internal node that branches into three or more lineages, as opposed to a dichotomous split into just two lineages. Polytomies indicate that the evolutionary relationships among the descendant lineages are not fully resolved.
Prezygotic barriers: A prezygotic barrier is a mechanism that blocks reproduction from taking place; this includes barriers that prevent fertilization when organisms attempt reproduction.
Proteome: The proteome is the entire set of proteins expressed by a genome, cell, tissue, or organism at a certain time under specific conditions.
Proteomics: Studying the structure and function of venom proteins and how they interact with biological targets. This includes the use of bioinformatics tools to predict protein function and interactions.
Putative hypothesis: Refers to a provisional or assumed explanation for a phenomenon that is suggested as a basis for further investigation or study. The term "putative" implies that the hypothesis is proposed as likely or plausible but has not yet been confirmed or rigorously tested. It serves as a starting point for scientific inquiry and experimentation.
Respiratory paralysis:Respiratory paralysis is a life-threatening condition caused by neurotoxic envenomation, primarily observed in snakebites from elapid (e.g., Micrurus spp., Naja spp., Bungarus spp.) and some viperid (e.g., Crotalus durissus) species. This condition results from the disruption of neuromuscular transmission, leading to progressive muscle weakness and eventual respiratory failure.
Synapse: Refers to the physiological process by which neurons communicate with either other neurons or muscle fibers, enabling the propagation of signals that coordinate essential functions such as movement and reflexes.
Sympatry: Sympatry refers to the coexistence of related species or populations within the same geographic area, allowing them to interact and frequently encounter one another.
Survival rate: The proportion of a population or species that survives a given time interval.
Trans-Andean region: Refers to the tropical region of South America located west of the Andes and below 1,000 meters in elevation. In Colombia includes the Caribbean cost, inter-Andean Valleys, and Pacific region.
Transcriptomics: Analyzing the RNA transcripts produced by venom glands to understand which genes are being expressed and how this expression changes under different conditions or stages of development.
Venomics: Studying of venom and its components using advanced techniques in genomics, proteomics, transcriptomics, and bioinformatics. This interdisciplinary field aims to understand the complexity of venom composition, its variation among different species, and its potential applications in medicine, pharmacology, and biotechnology.
Vicariance: Refers to the geographical separation and isolation of a population, leading to the differentiation of the original population into new varieties or species. This process can result from various factors such as tectonic plate movements, changes in climate, or the formation of barriers that divide populations, leading to speciation.
Western blot:A widely used analytical technique in molecular biology and immunogenetics for detecting specific proteins in tissue homogenates or extracts.
